A semiconductor is a material whose electrical conductivity can be controlled. Engineers use that behavior to build transistors, which can switch or control signals. Many transistors and connections form an integrated circuit on a wafer; the useful die is then packaged so it can be powered, cooled and connected inside products such as CPUs, memory, storage controllers, phones and network equipment.
Material, device, circuit and package are different layers
| Term | Meaning | Do not confuse it with |
|---|---|---|
| Semiconductor | Material with controllable electrical behavior, such as silicon | A complete processor or every material in a computer |
| Transistor | A semiconductor device used to switch or control electrical signals | A standalone computer instruction |
| Integrated circuit | A circuit containing many devices and interconnections on semiconductor material | The external package alone |
| Wafer | A thin semiconductor base on which many circuits are fabricated | One finished retail processor |
| Lithography | Patterning process used during fabrication | Ordinary printing or a user repair method |
| Chip/package | A fabricated circuit prepared with electrical and mechanical connections for a product | Proof of performance without architecture, software, power and cooling context |
From controlled switching to computation
Digital circuits commonly use voltage ranges to represent logical states. Transistors combine into logic gates, storage cells and larger functional blocks. Architecture determines how those blocks execute instructions, move data or process signals; software then supplies the instructions and data.
Smaller devices can allow more functions in a given area, but useful products also depend on manufacturing yield, interconnects, memory, packaging, power delivery, cooling and software. A process-node label by itself is not a universal performance score.
Where semiconductor devices appear
- CPU and GPU logic and cache
- RAM and flash-memory cells
- SSD controllers and power-management circuits
- Mobile processors, radio systems and camera processing
- Router, CCTV, printer, audio and display control electronics
- Power conversion, charging, sensing and protection circuits
Sources and further reading
Technical statements were reviewed against these references. External pages may change after our review date.
- Semiconductors — National Institute of Standards and Technology
- Semiconductor Glossary — National Institute of Standards and Technology
- The Nobel Prizes in Physics 1901–2000: Physics and Technology — Nobel Prize Outreach